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Semantic Shift
A shift from one meaning to an associated meaning

Chill ('to relax' from 'to cool'
Polysynthetic
language, a single word may
have many morphemes
Grammatical Meanings
abstract
serves grammatical functions
only has meaning/funciton inside a sentence
closed class
eg. in wals, friend of mine
Lexical Meanings
concrete
refers to objects or subjects
has a clear meaning outside of a sentence
limitless; open class
e.g. tree, walk
Reduplication
The repitition of all or part of a word. Not generally found in english
takki= leg tak-takki = legs
Functional shift
A change from one lexical class to another without any explicit morphological marking
Elbo N>V My elbow Elbow her
Word-formation Processes:
Reduplication
Compounding Whitehouse
Functional shift
Fusional
A fusional language is a language in which one form of a morpheme can simultaneously encode several meanings

-s in speaks codes third person, singular and present tense
Agglutinative
language is a language in
which words are made up of a linear sequence
of distinct morphemes and each component of
meaning is represented by its own morpheme.
Degree of synthesis
Synthesis refers to the number of morphemes
that a word may contain in a language
• In an analytic language, a single word has only
one morpheme
• In a polysynthetic language, a single word may
have many morphemes
Analytic
In an analytic language, a single word has only
one morpheme
Word Free/bound Affix
Bound morphemes can occur as an independent word: Fred, book, one

bound must be attatched: scar-ed, house-s
*s *ed *ly
Allomorph
Morphemes can have multiple allomorphs. Phonetic realization of a morpheme.
dogs [z] cats [s]
Morpheme
A meaningful part of a word; the minimal linguistic
unit which has a meaning or a grammatical function.
Morphology
The study of meaningful units in words and how they combine
Syntactic Evidence
Particular word classes can only occur in particular positions within a sentence

He likes red apples (*he red apples likes)
Morphological Evidence
Particular word classes take particular affixes
closed word class
word class, whose members are often small in number, which is
resistant to new members
open word class
a class to which one can easily incorporate new members through
borrowing or other word-formation processes
grammatical word classes
those classes whose words have more abstract meanings;
often grammatically obligatory; contrasts with lexical word classes
lexical word classes
those classes whose words typically convey a wide range of
concrete and often specific meanings; contrasts with grammatical word classes
conjunction
class of words, typically particles, which conjoin two or more words,
phrases, or clauses at the same level of structure
demonstrative
a small closed class of words that occur in the noun phrase and that have a deictic (“pointing”) function; typically differentiates proximal (e.g., this) and distal
(e.g., that), in addition to other categories
quantifier
words like some or couple. Unlike numerals which indicate an exact quality
article
a small class of grammatical particles that obligatorily occur in some noun
phrases in some languages; often index the definiteness (identifiability) of a noun, e.g.,
the and a(n) in English
Adverb
cover term for words that are not lexical nouns, verbs, or adjectives, but that still
have lexical (as opposed to grammatical) content
Adjective
word class whose members can occur either modifying a noun in a noun
phrase or within a predicate; adjectives specify attributes of the referent of the associated
noun
numeral
a word class often distinct from other quantifiers whose members indicate an
exact quantity
auxiliary verb
small subclass of verbs with fixed positions and abstract meanings
verb
a member of a class of words which function as the grammatical centers of
predicates; typically denote actions, events, activities, or states
noun
refers to a grammatically-defined word class, whose members can function as the
heads of noun phrases; typically denote entities or concepts
verb phrase
a syntactic constituent consisting
of a verb as the head of the phrase, and optional dependents including adverbs,
prepositional phrases, object noun phrases, and indirect objects in prepositional
phrases
Dependent
the type of syntactic constituents required by the head
Typical dependents: in noun phrases include demonstratives, numerals, adjectives, articles,
quantifiers, possessors, adpositional phrases (such as with a hammer), and relative
clauses (such as who came late).
Ditransitive verb/clause
verbs that can take at most three core arguments are referred to as
ditransitive.
Transitive verb/clause
verbs that can take at most two core arguments are referred to as transitive
Intransitive verb/clause
Verbs that can take at most one core argument are referred to as
intransitive
Oblique argument
Oblique arguments do not have a grammatical relationship with the verb.
Core argument
Core arguments are those that have a grammatical relationship with the verb
Argument
The term argument refers to a noun phrase, but rather than emphasizing its internal constituent structure, the term emphasizes the grammatical status of the
argument in relation to the verb. There are two types of arguments: core arguments
and oblique arguments.
Clause
Phrases combine to form clauses

(which combine to form sentences
Constituent
a sub-part of a higher unit.
Recursion
the ability for a phrasal constituent to embed another phrasal constituent of the same type
within it
Head
the element that determines the type of syntactic constituent
and (the dependents) which are required in order for the modifiers
Postpositional phrase
the postposition follows the noun phrase.
Prepositional phrase
In prepositional phrases the
preposition precedes the noun phrase,
Noun phrase
A noun phrase is a grammatically coherent syntactic constituent containing a
noun or a pronoun and optionally one or more modifiers
Constituent
The term constituent simply refers to a sub-part of a higher unit
Syntax
refers to the set of grammatical structures that allow for the combination of
words into phrases and sentences
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