Study PSYC 220 Exam #1 Flash Cards

 
Pile Management Card
PSYC 220 Exam #1

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Compensatory Mechanisms
Under heading: "Homeostatic Regulation of Altered Synapses"

Up-regulation / Down-regulation of synapses / receptors in response to taking drugs of abuse

Term sometimes used to refer to any such changes used to reinstate homeostasis
Sagittal
Cut of brain that splits the nose in half
Trait
characteristic (genes which encode physical features/ or result in behaviors)

-Adaptations

-Functional parts of natural selection
Ondansetron (antagonist)
2nd ant/ag of Serotonin
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
Heading: 'atypical hormonal effects'

Females exposed to high levels of testosterone in the womb

Masculinizing of genitals

Male-biased play behavior; career

Higher rates of homosexuality among this population
Huntington's Disease
Genetic / inherited disorder

The parent carrying the dominant gene for this disorder will also have it

Manifests itself later in life
Antagonist

Endogenous Opioids
Naltrexone
Agonist

Endogenous Opioids
Morphine
Antagonist

GABA
Ro 15-4513
Agonist

GABA
Barbiturates
Agonist

GABA
Alcohol
Antagonist

Glutamate
Ketamine
Antagonist

Glutamate
PCP
Agonist

Norepinephrine
SNRIs
Agonist

Norepinephrine
Strattera
Agonist

Dopamine
Amphetamine
Agonist

Dopamine
Cocaine
Antagonist(s)

Dopamine
Typical OR Atypical Antipsychotics
Antagonist

Serotonin
Ondansetron
Agonist

Serotonin
Fluoxetine
Agonist

Acetylcholine
Muscarine
Antagonist

Acetylcholine
Curare
Agonist

Acetylcholine
Nicotine
Muscarine (agonist)
3rd ant/ag for Acetylcholine
Curare (antagonist)
2nd ant/ag for Acetylcholine
Nicotine (agonist)
1st ant/ag for Acetylcholine
Activates muscle
Arousal
Attention
3) behavioral effects of Acetylcholine (Ach)
1. Muscarinic
2. Nicotinic
2) receptors for Acetylcholine (Ach)
Naltrexone (antagonist)
2nd ant/ag of Endogenous Opioids
Morphine (agonist)
1st ant/ag for Endegenous Opioids
Sexual behaviors
Analgesia
Respiration
3) behavioral effects of Endegenous Opioids
1. Mu
2. Kappa
3. Delta
3) receptors for Endegenous Opioids
1. Endorphins
2. Enkephalins
3. Dynorphins
3) types of Endegenous Opioids
Ro 15-4513 (antagonist)
3rd ant/ag of GABA
Barbiturates (agonist)
2nd ant/ag of GABA
Alcohol (agonist)
1st ant/ag of GABA
Regulate neural excitability
Inhibition
Brain development
3) behavioral effects of GABA
1. GABA-A
2. GABA-B
2) receptors for GABA
Ketamine (antagonist)
2nd ant/ag for Glutamate
PCP (antagonist)
1st ant/ag for Glutamate
Synaptic Plasticity
Learning
Memory
3) behavioral effects of Glutamate
1. NMDA
2. AMPA
3. mGlu
3) receptors associated with Glutamate
SNRIs (agonist)
2nd ant/ag of Norepinephrine
Stattera (agonist)
1st ant/ag of Norepinephrine
'Fight or flight'
Stress
Arousal
Mood
4) behavioral effects of Norepinephrine
Adrenergic Receptors
Receptor of Norepinephrine (NE)
Amphetamine (agonist)
4th ant/ag of Dopamine
Cocaine (agonist)
3rd ant/ag of Dopamine
Atypical antipsychotics (antagonist)
2nd ant/ag of Dopamine
Typical antipsychotics (antagonist)
1st ant/ag of Dopamine
Voluntary movement
Motivation/reward
Drug abuse
Mood
Learning
5) behavioral effects of Dopamine
D1-5
Receptor for Dopamine
Fluoxetine
3rd ant/ag of Serotonin

agonist
SSRIs
1st ant/ag of Serotonin

agonist
Mood
Appetite
Social Dominance
Aggression
Behavioral effects of Serotonin
5HT1-5
Receptors for Serotonin
Nodes of Ranvier
Concentrated areas where ions can move across membrane
'Stimulated'
Heading: 'Summary of action potential' (4 main things, 1-7)

The state of a cell when the Na+ channels open and Na+ enters neuron

Membrane potential becomes less negative
Autism
Disorder caused by abnormal course of social development

Lack of social cognition

Deficient in theory of mind (?)

Associated brain regions: OFC, medial temporal love, abnormal development of neuronal connections, lack of programmed cell death
Representations / Object permanence
Developmental milestone

Involves prefrontal cortex

Understanding an object is still present although can't see it

Developed by age 10
Facial Recognition
Developmental milestone

Involves visual cortex and sub-cortical regions

Infants develop this ability
Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (CAIS)
Heading: 'environment and human sexual development'

XY genotype (sex: male)

Produce testosterone normally, but lack androgen receptors

Feminization of genitals

Female-biased play behaviors; identify as female

No male-biased behavior
Puberty
Heading: 'environment and human sexual development'

When sex hormones stimulate further sex differentiation (ie, sexual characteristics)
Gender Identity
Heading: 'environment and human sexual development'

Development of this occurs ages 2-4 and may further influence sex differentiation of CNS
Gender
Term used to refer the environment's role in determining expression/label as male or female

- Development of gender-specific roles influenced by both genetics and environment
Sex
Term referring to the biological characteristics of an individual

- Development of sex-specific characteristics guided by genes and hormones
sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area (SDN-POA)
Androgen inhibits cell death of this, which is located in the hypothalamus, resulting in masculinizing effects of the CNS and later, resulting male behaviors later in life
"Sexually indifferent stage"
The stage in sexual development during which gonads are not fully developed as male / female
Organizational Effects
Heading: 'Hormones and Development'

Effects of hormones that produce lasting or long-term alterations in structure during development

- Penetrate the membrane and directly alter gene expression--protein--structure of neuron
Activational Effects
Heading: 'Hormones and Development'

Effects of hormones that produce transient actions at target cells by occupying receptors
Renervation
Process called when preganglionic connection in 1 and postganglionic connection in 2 is restored
Sprouting
Process called when new neurons form new connections to restore a nerve that has undergone denervation

(new neurons formed at 1 and 3)
Denervation
Loss of a neural connection
Programmed Cell Death (PCD) OR Apoptosis
Term that refers to when cells spontaneously kills themselves
Neurotropic Factors
Cells able to take up these factors are able to preserve necessary synapses

Secreted by target cells

Ex: nerve growth factor
Chemoattraction
Specific part of neuron (axon) is attracted to the target cell, which is releasing guidepost cells

General Definition: Attraction of part of a growing cell towards chemical cues in its environment
Denervation
Loss of neural supply; interruption of nerve connection to an organ or part
Synaptic Restructuring
Stage 6 of Development (LAST stage)

j) behavior helps maintain and strengthen certain synapses and weed out others

- synaptic restructuring is ongoing throughout life
- synaptic transmission strengthens synapses
- lack of communication weakens synapses
- repair after trauma
Apoptosis
AKA: programmed cell death

Provoked by expression of 'suicide genes'

Typically confers advantages during an organism's life cycle
EX: attributed to the differentiation of fingers and toes in a developing human embryo
Synaptogenesis and Selective Cell Death
Stages 4 & 5 of Development

h) neurites of proximal cells form synapses
*neurotropic factors secreted by target cells create and preserve necessary synapses

i) synaptic connections are strengthened or removed
Differentiation
Stage 3 of Development

f) distinct cell types develop distinct shapes

g) ...and structures
Migration
Stage 2 of Development

d) special chemicals attract specific cells

e) using these chemicals as guides, cells are directed towards their appropriate place in the CNS
Neurogenesis
Stage 1 of Development

a) precursor cells give rise to neurons at the neural tube

b) cells repeatedly divide

c) cell division stops
Synaptic Reorganization
Heading: "Stages of Development"

Synapses are strengthened / weakened

SIXTH stage of development (of 6)
Selective neuron death
Heading: "Stages of Development"

Some neurons are destroyed / die off

FIFTH stage of development (of 6)
Synaptogenesis
Heading: "Stages of Development"

Synapses begin to form between neurons

FOURTH stage of development (of 6)
Differentiation
Heading: "Stages of Development"

Types of neurons arise from a standard precursor neuron; neurites begin to form from neurons

THIRD stage of development (of 6)
Migration
Heading: "Stages of Development"

Neurons move towards their final anatomical location

SECOND stage of development
Neurogenesis
Heading: "Stages of Development"

Cells of the neural tube repeatedly divide

FIRST stage of development
Neural Tube
Heading: "Development of the CNS"

Made up by:
-stem cells

-caudal portion

-rostral portion

-cavity
Neural Crest
Develops into PNS
Cavity
Heading: "Development of the CNS"

Part of neural tube

Forms---ventricles and central canal of spinal cord
Rostral portion
Heading: "Development of the CNS"

Part of neural tube

Forms---brain
Caudal portion
Heading: "Development of the CNS"

Part of neural tube

Forms---spinal cord
Stem cells
Heading: "Development of the CNS"

Part of neural tube

Forms---neurons and glial cells
Dizygotic Twins
Twins tat are fraternal
Monozygotic Twins
Twins that are identical
Learning
Heading: "development v learning"

Experience-dependent

Largely shaped by environment

Generally reversible
Development
Heading: "development v learning"

Time-dependent

Involves environment

Generally irreversible
Single-unit recording
Stereotaxic surgery to place recording microelectrodes in specific brain regions to record from a single neuron

-Record activity / inhibition of a single neuron's activity during behaviors
Experimental lesions / ablations
Heading: "Learning from brain damage"

Targeted brain regions are strategically damaged and resulting behavioral deficits are observed

Stereotaxic surgery
Loss of funtion
Heading: "Learning from brain damage"

Localized site of damage correlates with specific behavioral deficits
Microdialysis
Heading: "Quantifying Neurochemicals"

Uses a special probe to collect fluid samples containing extrasynaptic neurochemicals
Functional MRI (fMRI)
Heading: "Techniques for Imaging"

Functional AND structural

Measures oxygen consumption in high resolution
Theory of Mind
A theory that holds that you can infer the intentions of other organism's using sensory information

Facilitated by enlarged Prefrontal cortices (?)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Heading: "Techniques for Imaging"

Structural

Magnetic properties of substances in the body are alined within a magnetic field to derive an image
Positron Emisson Tomography (PET)
Heading: "Techniques for Imaging"

Functional

Radioactive tracer (ie, radioactive oxygen, glucose, NT precursor) used

Measure blood flow (rCBF) or distribution of a specific NT in brain
Computerized Tomography (CT)
Heading: "Techniques for Imaging"

Structural

Series of X-rays used to derive an image of the brain
Electromyogram
Heading: "Non-invasive recording of electrical activity"

Electrodes attached to the surface of the body / attached to muscle itself

Record voltage
Evoked Potentials
Heading: "Non-invasive recording of electrical activity"

Electrodes attached to surface of head

Record changes in voltage associated with stimuli (event related potentials, ERP)
Elecroencephalography (EEG)
Heading: "Non-invasive recording of electrical activity"

Electrodes attached to surface of head

Record total whole brain voltage
Electron microscopy
Heading: "Techniques for Visualizing Neurons"

Investigate staining of specific cells under an electron microscope
Nissl staining
Heading: "Techniques for Visualizing Neurons"

Type of Histology

-examines cell body stain
Golgi staining
Heading: "Techniques for Visualizing Neurons"

Type of Histology

-examines whole cell stain
Histology
Heading: "Techniques for Visualizing Neurons"

Investigate staining of specific cells under a high-powered light microscope

-Golgi staining: whole cell stain

-Nissl staining: cell body stain
Retrograde Labeling
Heading: "Techniques for Visualizing Neurons"

Inject dye at axon terminals, transported THROUGH AXON to CELL BODY
Anterograde Labeling
Heading: "Techniques for Visualizing Neurons"

Inject dye into cell nucleus, transported FROM CELL BODY to AXON TERMINALS
Principle of Proper Mass
A Principle that refers to the fact that the amount of neural tissue devoted to a behavioral function corresponds to the amount of information processing required to successfully perform the function
Principle of Localization
A Principle that refers to the fact that different structures of the brain have different functions
Analogous
Refers to a feature evolved independently between species, but resulting from same evolutionary (environmental) pressures
Homologous
Refers to a common evolutionary origin between species
Hypothalamus
Regulates feeding behavior

Important for homeostasis

Coordinates stress response

Output projections to many brain regions, including those involved in decision-making
Nucleus of the Solitary Tract (NTS)
Projections from PNS or cranial nerves arrive to NTS

Output projections to other brain regions
-Liver --> neurons of the PNS --> vagus nerve --> NTS --> hypothalamus
Astrocyte-endothelial Interactions
The close anatomical association between endothelial cells and per vascular astrocytic end feet suggests cooperation between these cell types in forming and maintaining the blood-brain barrier.
Blood Brain Barrier
Selective barrier formed between blood vessels and neurons of the brain

-Prevents toxins from penetrating the brain through the bloodstream

-Protects against drastic changes in ion concentrations

-Allows entrance of proper nutrients, hormones (special transport mechanisms; selective laxity of this in specific areas that contain neurons which are extremely sensitive to ion concentration and toxins)
Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF)
Produced in the choroid plexus

Fills ventricles, cerebral aqueduct, central canal of the spinal cord

Cushions the brain against trauma
Amygdala
Receives sensory input from cortex

Coordinate/processes emotional response

Outputs to many brain regions for further processing of emotion

(Part of Limbic System)
Mammillary body
Invovled in recognition

(Part of Limbic System)
Hippocampus
Receives sensory input from cortex

Forms memories, some of which may have emotional components

Outputs to many brain regions, including through fornix to mammillary body

(Part of Limbic System)
Telencephalon
Part of the brain involved with the Limbic System
Amygdala, Hippocampus and Mammillary body
Three main components of the Limbic System
Dorsolateral, medial, orbitofrontal
Three major subdivisions of the prefrontal cortex

Why is this important?
Executive Functioning
Prefrontal cortex responsible for this

Includes planning, decision making, appropriate social behavior, attention
Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum
Two areas of the brain involved in motor control
Cerebellum
Receives input from motor cortex

Balance, locomotion, organizes motor action, coordinate decisions about motor action
Basal Ganglia
Includes: Caudate nucleus, Globus, Pallidus, Putamen

Receives input from motor cortex

Movement control
Motor Cortex
Cortex

-Precentral gyrus

-Receives sensory input from PNS, sensory input from other areas of the cortex

-Exerts motor control (skeletal muscles)-- cranial nerves, spinal cord, other brain regions
Optic Nerve
Cranial nerve II

Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)
Primary processing center for visual information received from the retina of the eye

Found inside the thalamus of the brain
Vision
"Sensory cortices"

-Cranial Nerve (optic nerve)

-Receptor cells (retina, light responsive)

-Triggers activation of ganglion cells, which form the optic nerve

-Thalamus (lateral geniculate nucleus)

-Visual Cortex
Touch
"Sensory cortices"

Nerve fiber from PNS --> ascending tract in CNS

-Crosses sides at medulla

-Projects to thalamus (directs information to subregion of somatosensory cortex)
Pain
"Sensory cortices"

Nerve fiber from PNS --> ascending tract in CNS

-Crosses sides in spinal cord

-Projects to RAS (emotion/arousal)

-Projects to thalamus (directs to a specific part fo the somatosensory cortex)
Thalamus
-Receives sensory input from sensory systems

-Projections to the cortex

-Specific (ie, directs specific types of sensory info to a specific parts of the cortex)

-Receives information from cortex
Ascending Reticular Activating System (RAS)
-Sensory input arrives via spinal cord

-Neurons activated by sensory input

-Projections to cortex

-Non-specific (ie, projects all types of sensory info)

-Wakefulness/alertness and sleep
Sensory Humunculus
Diagram used to illustrate how much of the cortex is attributed to sensory input from a certain part of the body
Association Cortices
Regions in the cortex where information from primary cortices is integrated (ie, olfactory and visual information)
Somatosensory Cortex
Cortex controlled by the parietal lobe

Receives sensory information regarding touch
Auditory Cortex
Cortex controlled by the temporal lobe

Receives auditory information
Visual Cortex
Cortex in the occipital lobe

Visual information received via optic nerve
Gyri
Spaces between the folds that make up the cerebral cortex
Sulci
Folds that make up the cerebral cortex
White matter
Myelinated axons make up the inner brain
Gray matter (cortex)
In the cortex

Cell bodies make up the outer brain
Lateral Sulcus
A fold in the cerebral cortex of brains in vertebrates

Divides the frontal lobe and parietal lobe above from the temporal lobe below.
Central Sulcus
A fold in the cerebral cortex of brains in vertebrates also called the central fissure

Separates the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe (and the primary motor cortex from the primary somatosensory cortex)
Occipital Lobe
Lobe of the brain

Involved in vision
Temporal Lobe
Lobe of the brain

Involved in hearing/audition and memory
Parietal Lobe
Lobe of the brain

Involved in sensory information related to touch, pain, temperature
Frontal Lobe
Lobe of the brain

Involved in decision making, planning, movement, speech and emotion
Anterior Commisure
Axons of neurons connecting the anterior portions of the two hemispheres
Corpus Callosum
Axons of neurons connecting the two hemispheres
Brain stem
"General categorization of the brain"

Made up of the midbrain, pons, medulla
Mesencephalon
"General categorization of the brain"

Made up of the diencephalon
-Includes the thalamus and hypothalamus

Made up of the midbrain
Telencephalon
"General categorization of the brain"

Part of brain known as the Cerebrum

Includes the cerebral cortex
Horizontal
Cut of brain that splits lips half (one lip on top, one on bottom)
Coronal
Cut of brain that splits the ears in half
Contralateral
An anatomical term referring to the opposite side
Anterior
Another anatomical term for VENTRAL

Refers to...
Posterior
Another anatomical term for DORSAL

Refers to the back or behind
Rostral
Another anatomical term for SUPERIOR

Refers to above or on top of
Caudal
Another anatomical term for inferior
Ipsilateral
An anatomical term pertaining to the same side
Lateral
An anatomical term pertaining to the side of the body or a body part that is farther from the middle or center of the body.

Typically refers to the outer side of the body part, but it is also used to refer to the side of a body part.
Medial
An anatomical term pertaining to the middle; in or toward the middle; nearer the middle of the body.

Within a multi-layered structure, the center layer.
Inferior
A term pertaining to below or beneath
Superior
A term pertaining to on top of or above.

Example in the body: relationship of the HEART to the stomach
Ventral
A term pertaining to the front or anterior of any structure.

Some examples on the body: chest, abdomen, shins, palms, and soles
Dorsal
A term relating to the back of a structure.

Some examples on the body: Back, butt, calves, knuckles side of the hand
Up-regulation
Under heading: "Homeostatic Regulation of Altered Synapses"

-Loss of excitement of a synapse

-# of postsynaptic receptors INCREASED
Down-regulation
Under heading: "Homeostatic Regulation of Altered Synapses"

-Repeated excitement of a synapse

-# of postsynaptic receptors REDUCED
Ionotropic receptor
Type of receptor

When neurotransmitters bind to it, it results in the operation of ion channels

Able to DIRECTLY open ion channels, which generates activity in the postsynaptic cell
Hemicholinium-3
Drug that impairs spatial learning by depleting ACh

Acts as a direct antagonist

Impairs performance on Morris Water Maze task
3. # of postsynaptic receptors
Heading: "alterations at synapses": "natural causes"

ONE (3 of 3) example of individual differences at synapses due to genes / environment
2. amt of NT properly stored
Heading: "alterations at synapses": "natural causes"

ONE (2 of 3) example of individual differences at synapses due to genes / environment
1. amt of NT synthesized
Heading: "alterations at synapses": "natural causes"

ONE (1 of 3) example of individual differences at synapses due to genes / environment
4. Removal from the synapse
4th step in Neurotransmission
3. Binding to receptors on postsynaptic neuron
3rd step in Neurotransmission
2. Movement across synaptic cleft
2nd step in Neurotransmission
1. Release from presynaptic neuron
1st step in Neurotransmission
Electircal Synapse
Type of synapse

-Neurons touch directly (NO SYNAPSE)

-Electircal events in one neuron induce electrical events in the other neuron
Autoreceptors
Heading: "Controlling the synapse"

Act as a sensor

Type of receptor typically on presynaptic cell

Serves as part of a feedback mechanism (or loop) in signal transduction

Inhibits release of various (specific) NTs
Maintaining sustained activity at receptors
Heading: "Controlling the synapse"

Dynamics between presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron

Equal rate of release / rate of breakdown of NT (constantly replacing NT lost)
Inactivation
Heading: "Controlling the synapse"

Enzyme breaks down NT

Reuptake brings excess NT back into the presynaptic cell
Axon Hillock
Tapering region between a neurons cell body and its axon

Responsible for summating the graded inputs from the dendrites and producing action potentials if the threshold is reached
Net Summation
Independent input at axon hillock AND

Simultaneous, integrated input at axon hillock
Net Summation
Refers to: Once the membrane potential is changed enough at the axon hillock to reach threshold,
MAOIs
Undesired effects of this drug include

Block enzyme essential for the digestion of certain foods
Prozac
Undesired effects of this drug include

Block serotonin receptor subtype (5HT2C)

Increases appetite
Clominaprine
Undesired effects of this drug metabolite include

Block reuptake of norepinephrine

Effects sexual functioning among other behaviors
Clomipramine
Type of drug intended to block reuptake of serotonin

Treat OCD
Blocks reuptake of serotonin to treat OCD
What is the desired effect of Clomipramine?
Effects
One (of 3) way a drug can cause side-effects

Refers to the fact that a drug can alter normal function of target
Metabolites
One (of 3) way a drug can cause side-effects

Refers to the fact that a drug (or part of the drug...) can alter normal functino of other NTs
Specificity
One (of 3) way a drug can cause side-effects

Refers to the fact that a drug can alter other mechanisms of the NT system
Axon Hillock
The anatomical part of a neuron that connects the cell body (soma) to the axon

The location where the summation of IPSPs and EPSPs from numerous synaptic inputs on the dendrites or cell body occurs
Dale's Principle
The principle stating that a neuron does the same thing at all of its synaptic connections to other cells, regardless of the identity of the target cell.

Has been taken to refer to the fact that:

-neurons release one and only one transmitter at all of their synapses OR
-neurons release the same set of transmitters at all of their synapses.
Colocalization
Part of Dale's principle

Refers to the fact that different NTs can be released from the same axon terminal?????????
MAOIs
Type of medicine

-Inhibits the enzyme which breaks down monamine NTs (dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine)

-Monoamine oxidase inhibitor

-Treatment of depression
Prozac (fluoxetine)
type of medicine

-Inhibits serotonin reuptake

-Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)

-Treatment of OCD, depression
Compensatory Mechanisms
Heading: "Homeostatic regulation of altered synapses"

Evident in withdrawal from drugs of abuse / medication

Ex: cocaine withdrawal--> down-regulatino of DA release without drug --> withdrawal symptoms (dysphoria, anxiety, depression, increased appetite, excessive sleeping)
Up-regulation
Heading: "Homeostatic regulation of altered synapses"

Loss of excitement at synapse

Number of postsynaptic receptors increased
Down-regulation
Heading: "Homeostatic regulation of altered synapses"

Repeated excitement of a synapse

Number of postsynaptic receptors reduced
Synaptic Vesicles
Containers that hold NT

Primed for release by arrival of AP
Synaptic Cleft
Another name for the Synaptic Gap

Space NT has to travel to travel in order to reach the subsequent nerve cell
Axon Terminal
Another name for terminal buttons
Indirect Antagonist
Blocks release of NT

Promotes reuptake of NT
Indirect Agonist
Artificailly reduces release of NT from presynaptic neuron without stimulation by AP

Blocks autoreceptor

Blocks reuptake of NT
-Ex: cocaine (dopamine)
Antagonist
Drug which inhibits the effect of the NT

-Occupies the receptor / receptor subtype
Agonist
Drug which mimics the effect of the NT

-Binds with receptor / receptor subtype
Metabotropic
NT binds to this kind of receptor

Second messenger is activated within neuron

-effects ion channels and genes
Glutamate
Example of an Ionotropic receptor that causes"

-Na+ channels open
-Depolarize membrane
Ionotropic ("Classical neurotransmission")
NT binds to this kind of receptor

Ion channels open / ions move in or out of cell

Membrane potential is excited / inhibited
Metabolites
Broken down components of NTs

-some are active
-quantitative measure of NT activity
amt of Excitatory NT - amt of Inhibitory NT
A second "equation" for the probability of action potential firing
Strength of EPSP - Strength if IPSP
One potential "equation" for the probability of action potential firing
Temporal Summation
The term used for when there is rapid stimulation of the same site on the postsynaptic neuron
Spatial Summation
The term used for when multiple sites of stimulation of the postsynaptic neuron
Hyperpolarization
The term for the negative change in voltage that occurs at the membrane during a synapse
Inhibitorypostsynaptic potential (IPSP)
The type of synapse where there is a negative change in voltage (hyperpoloarization)
Depolarization
This term refers to the electrical stimulation of the neuron causes a positive change in membrane potential
Depolarization
The term used when there is a positive change in voltage at the synapse
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
The type of synapse where there is a positive change in voltage (depoloarization)
Plagues
Areas of brain damage (in addition to lesions) caused by MS
Tay-Sachs disease
Type of disorder related to dysmelination

Progressive deterioration of motor and cognitive abilities, fatality by age 4

Genetic cause
Guillain-Barre syndrome
Type of disorder related to demyelination

Autoimmune disorder
Guillain-Barre syndrome
Type of disorder related to demyelination

Muscle weakness beginning in the legs and traveling upwards

Environmental causes
Multiple Sclerosis
Type of disorder related to demyelination

Progressive muscle weakness, motor impairment; difficulties with speech, vision, cognition

Genetic and environmental causes
Myelinated axons
Type of axons with directed flow of ions at Nodes of Ranvier facilitates transmission
Myelinated axons
Type of axons that operate at an enhanced speed

Prolonged electrical disturbance facilitates transmission

Faster transmission = potential for greater frequency
Unmyelinated axons
Type of axons that transmission depends on flow of ions throughout the entire axon
Unmyelinated axons
Type of axons that operate at a slower speed

Slower transmission limits the frequency of action potentials
Saltatory Conduction
The propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of action potentials without needing to increase the diameter of an axon.
Myelin
Made by specialized glial cells

Speeds movement of action potentials alongthe axon
Glial cells
Cells that support neurons of CNS (oligodendrocytes) and PNS (Schwann cells)

-Maintain the nervous system

-Guide development of the NS

-Influence neuronal signaling
Schwann Cells
Cells that support neurons of the PNS

-Maintain nervous system

-Guide development of nervous system

-Influence neuronal signaling
Oligodendrocytes
Cells that support neurons of the CNS

-Maintain nervous system

-Guide development of nervous system

-Influence neuronal signaling
Saturation
The state of the neuron when it can't fire any more action potentials, even if you increase the stimulus
Refractory Period
This period of time prevents the action potential from moving backward
Falling phase
Phase of an action potential when:

Sodium channels shut, K+ channels open and allow it into neuron

Allows restoration of resting potential
Peak
Phase of an action potential when:

At highest membrane potential the cell will reach
Rising phase
Phase of an action potential when:

Depolarization, cell is stimulated
Refractory period
The time after the actino potential has fired at a specific location on the axon during which another action potential cannot fire at this location
'Recovery'
The state of a cell when NA+ channels close, K+ channels open and K+ leaves neuron

Resting potential is stabilized
'Depolarization'
The state of a cell when K+ enters neuron to reach threshold

Action potential fired
'At rest'
The state of a cell when resting potential is maintained by sodium-potassium pump, concentration gradient & voltage
Potassium channels
What allows the membrane potential to move in a negative direction (until at rest)

Occurs when K+ moving out of cell
Action Potential
What occurs when a membrane potential reaches threshold
Sodium channels
The name of what the Na+ ions move into the cell through

(It does this when the neuron is stimulated, b/c membrane becomes more permeable to Na+)
Depolarization
Membrane potential becomes less negative and more positive due to the influx of Na+ ions that occurs when a neuron is stimulated
Resting Potential
Baseline level of cell's voltage that is -60mV to -70mV

Before the action potential
Net force
What is created by voltage, concentration gradient and the sodium-potassium pump that regulates the flow of ions
Sodium Potassium Pump
Brings K+ in and forcing Na+ out in order to maintain a proper membrane potential in the cell membrane
Passive
Word used to describe the movement of ions across the cell membrane

Related to the process of diffusion, voltage and concentration gradients of the cell membranes
Concentration Gradient
Difference in concentration of a substance between one area and another
Pre-synaptic Cell
The type of cell that releases neurotransmitter into the synapse
Membrane Potential
Voltage difference between the inside of the cell and the outside of the cell

Usually, -60mV to -70mV
Voltage
Difference in electrical potential arising from an imbalance of electrical charges between ions
Extracellular fluid
Type of cellular fluid mostly positive (in natural state)
Intracellular fluid
Type of cellular fluid mostly negative (in natural state)
Semi-permeable
Characteristic of the cell membrane

Allows some cells to travel through the cellular membrane but not others
Ions
Electrically active atoms

Ex: Na+, K+, Cl-
Heirarchical control
in Global control of ANS

Regulatory info comes from top, down
Global control of ANS
Coordinates needs of body with activity of ANS

controlled by command neurons in brain
Local Feedback
Local control of ANS

-sensory neurons near ANS target organ project info to CNS

-CNS conveys info about regulating ANS target

-involves only proximal neurons
Efferent neurons project FROM CNS
Type of neurons in vagus nerve

Stimulation of hunger cues
Vagus nerve
The nerve with efferent neurons that project FROM CNS
Afferent neurons project TO CNS
Type of neurons in vagus nerve

Low availability of energy for peripheral organ
Vagus nerve
The nerve with afferent neurons that project to the CNS
Sympathetic nerve
Type of nerve also known as postganglionic fibres
Neurons (effectors)
type of neurons under ANS control

smooth muscles
-synapses between neurons and muscles

secretion of hormones from glands
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Neurotransmitter that slows heartbeat

Very common in ANS
Parasympathetic Branch
Branch of ANS active while body is at rest

Ex: facilitates energy storage

Ex: slows heartbeat

Ex: aids digestion

Ex: facilitates activity of liver, bladder and kidneys

Ex: contracts pupils
Sympathetic Branch
Branch of the ANS that readies the body for action: FIGHT or FLIGHT

Ex: releases energy

Ex: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine

Ex: increases heartbeat

Ex: dilates pupils

Ex: inhibit digestion

Ex: inhibit activity of liver, kidneys and bladder
Automatic Nervous System (ANS)
Part of the nervous system that controls internal environment

Involuntary, controlled by smooth muscle
Corticosteroids
Prepare body for action

ACTH induces the release of this
ACTH
travels in bloodstream to adrenal gland, inducing release of corticosteroids
CRF receptors
Induce release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) from pituitary gland
HPA Axis
Includes the Hypothalamus, pituitary, and adrenal glands

Primary circuit activated by stressors
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRH or CRF)
Neurohormone

Binds to CRF Receptors

"Stress" hormone
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRH or CRF)
Neurohormone

Hypothalamus--> local blood vessel --> Pituitary gland
Testosterone
Classical hormone

Regulates sexual and aggressive behaviors
Testosterone
Classical hormone

Males: testes

Females: adrenal gland
Oestrogen
Classical hormone

Regulates sexual motivation in females
--increases responsibity to mate/fertility
Arginine Vasopressin (AVP)
Regulates body fluids
--slows the production of urine

Release is sensitive to water deficiency
--inhibits water loss
Arginine Vasopressin (AVP)
Hypothalamus --> pituitary -->bloodstream --> kidney (specific target organ)
Insulin
Regulates glucose levels

Pancreas --> bloodstream --> body

Release is sensitive to amount of glucose in the bloodstream AND environmental cues
Adrenal glands
Responsible for secreting cortisol (related to stress)
Pancreas
Secretes insulin (responsible for regulating glucose levels)
Pineal gland
Secretes hormone melatonin (activated by sunlight)
Pituitary gland
Responsible for secreting ACTH, oxytocin and AVP
Neurohormone
Hormones in brain that are secreted by a group of neurons with local targets

Can bind with receptors and exert effects on target cells
Hormones
Chemicals that act throughout the body and are secreted by glands with global targets
Cranial Nerves
Spread information from the brain to teh rest of the head

Ex: facial nerves, control jaw, throat, eyes, olfactory
Dendritic Spines
Enhance the surface area of the dendrite and allow more synapses to be possible with a neuron

Show plasticity, increase neurotransmission communication
Dendrodendritic Synapse
A type of synapse in which a dendrite of one neuron comes in contact with a dendrite of another neuron
Axon with only a cell body
Transmits information using smooth changes in voltage
Sensory Neurons
Den--Axon--Cell body--Axon--Den

Type of neuron that can convey information over large distances

Can have synapses at dendrites, axon or cell body
Postsynaptic Neuron
what a neuron is called when it is NOT sending a message to another neuron
Presynaptic Neuron
what a neuron is called when it is sending a message to another neuron
Dendrites
The part of the neuron that (for the most part) receives the messages from other neurons
Soma
Cell body of neuron, contains DNA
Axoaxonic Synapse
a synapse in which the axon of one neuron comes in contact with the axon of another neuron
Axosomatic Synapse
a synapse in which the axon of one neuron comes in contact with the cell body of another neuron.
Axodendretic Synapse
a synapse in which the axon of one neuron comes in contact with the dendrites of another neuron.
Terminal Button
Exist at the ends of the many branches that divide out from the axon

They receive the message transferred down the axon, store them in their synaptic vesicles and are responsible for then secreting these transmitter substances.
Spinal cord
First point of contact, connections between PNS and CNS
Neuroplasticity / Brain plasticity
This term refers to the brain’s ability to CHANGE throughout life. The brain has the amazing ability to reorganize itself by forming new connections between brain cells (neurons).
Myelin Sheath
Insulates the axon of a neuron and allows for faster neural firings
Axon
Long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body or soma.
Efferent Neuron
Neurons that travel away from the brain /away from a specific brain region

Ex: motor neuron
Afferent Neurons
Neurons that travel towards the brain / to a specific brain region

Ex: sensory neuron
Tract / pathway
in CNS

bundle of axons
Nerve
in PNS

bundle of axons
Ganglion
in PNS

group of cell bodies of neurons
Dermatone
(spinal cord)

sensory surface of the body
Gray matter
(spinal cord)

cell bodies
Spinal Nerve
(spinal cord)

dorsal and ventral root
Ventral Root
(spinal cord)

motor neuron axons
DRG
(spinal cord)

sensory neuron cell bodies
Hormones
Chemicals that act throughout the body and are secreted by glands

- Adrenal gland --> cortisol
How are neuromodulators unlike NTs
-Travel to receptors farther away
-Exert 'global' effects
-Modulate activity of the postsynaptic neuron (has a range of effects)
-Can influence the release of NTs (facilitate or inhibit)
-Can influence the ability of the NT to bind to the postsynaptic receptor (facilitate or inhibit)
How are neuromodulators similar to NT
-Are released from neurons
-Have effects at neighboring neurons
-Bind to receptors
Neuromodulator
Like NTs
-Are released from neurons
-Have effects at neighboring neurons
-Bind to receptors

Unlike NTs
-Travel to receptors farther away
-Exert 'global' effects
-Modulate activity of the postsynaptic neuron (has a range of effects)
-Can influence the release of NTs (facilitate or inhibit)
-Can influence the ability of the NT to bind to the postsynaptic receptor (facilitate or inhibit)
GABA
Classical neurotransmitter

Primary inhibitory NT
Glutamate
Classical neurotransmitter

Primary excitatory NT
Inhibitory Synapse
Neurons 1 & 2 release neurotransmitter into their synapses with neuron 4

Since the synapse with neuron 2 is inhibitory, the input from this synapse opposes the input from the synapse with neuron 1

The net effect of inhibition cancels out the net effect of excitation

Neuron 4 is not stimulated
More Excitatory Synapses
Neurons 1 & 3 release neurotransmitter into their synapses with neuron 4

With the addition of excitatory input from neuron 3, neuron 4 is stimulated to a greater extent

Action potentials fire in neuron 4 with a greater frequency
Excitatory Synapses
Action potentials arrive at neuron 1

Neurotransmitter is released at the synapse between neuron 1 & 4

Neuron 4 is stimulated, action potentials fire
Inhibitory Synapses
Types of synapses

Between 2 & 4
Excitatory Synapses
Types of synapses

Between 1 & 4 and between 3 & 4
Circuit
Types of synapses

Neurons 1-4 creates this
Synapse
(Action Potential)

Structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell
Neurotransmitter
(Action Potential)

Upon reaching threshold, this is released into the synapse
Threshold
(Action Potential)

After a series of action potentials, the neuron may reach this...
Action Potentials
Information is encoded as the frequency of the electrical signals

Information arises from: which neurons are active and the frequency of action potentials in those neurons
Autonomic Nervous System
Pat of the CNS that is involuntary

-Internal world (smooth muscles)
Somatic Nervous System
Part of the CNS that contains the Voluntary and Involuntary
Depression
Mood disorder characterized by negative affect, disturbances in appetite / sleep, fatigue, lack of motivation

Reactive: in response to external events

Non-reactive: appears spontaneously (may be due to internal alterations in neurochemistry)

Multidimensional, complex causes

Genetic
Environmental/ Learning

Evolutionary context?
Specialization of cells in the body
All cells contain all DNA but only certain segments of the DNA are used in a given cell to express a given protein
Genes
Sections of DNA

Located on paired chromosomes

A gene pair determines a trait

Allele variant of a given gene
Selective Breeding
The process of breeding plants and animals for particular genetic traits
Strains
Subdivisions of a species that displays its own specific phenotypes, which are correlated with different genotypes
Species-typical behavior
Behavior commonly displayed by most members of a species

Displayed in 'normal' environment

Triggered by specific environmental stimuli

Ex: speech
Innate / Instinctive behaviors
Behaviors that are
1) Genetically determined

2) Make evolutionary sense
Heritability
Degree to which differences in a trait are due to differences in genetics
Down's Syndrome
Genetic / inherited disorder

AKA: trisomy 21

Results from inheritance of an extra 21st chromosome and is characterized by cognitive disabilities and physical abnormalities
Huntington's Disease
Genetic / inherited disorder

Results from the presence of one dominant allele, and is characterized by abnormal body movements, changes in personality and memory impairments

-If 1 parent has it, 30% chance
Phenylalnine
Protein that if not produced properly (caused by genetic mutation) causes PKU

-If parents both have it, offspring 21% chance
PKU
Genetic/inherited disorder

Results from a genetic mutation that causes inability to properly process the protein, phenylalnine
Mutations
The phenotype that results when genes are altered during reproduction
Phenotype
Physical characteristic of an individual

Result of genotype + environment
Genotype
Collection of all genes of an individual
Protein synthesis
-Transcription of DNA to mRNA

-Translation of mRNA to protein
Motivation
Internally drives behavior by appropriately directing action and attention based on the environment
Action
Voluntary, conscious response to stimuli

-Open-ended
Reflex
Automatic response to stimuli

-Stereotyped
Natural Selection
Process that acts on individuals, as their genes are selected to be passed on
Evolution
Process that occurs on a large timescale within a species, over many generations of natural selection
Adaptation
The suitability of a trait for an environment

-A sum of adapted traits (vs non-adapted traits) directly influences an individual's fitness
Fitness
Measure of the ability of an animal to pass on its genes
Function
Reproductive success / success in passing along genes
Natural Selection
The process by which specific genes are favored within a given environment to produce viable offspring (pass along the genes)
Evolution
Change occurring in a species across generations due to genetic variation
Monism
The mind and the brain are two ways to refer to the same entity, a biological structure that is part of the body

Thus, conscious thought arises from biological functions
Dualism
The mind is viewed as a separate entity from the brain and the body

Mind = conscious thought, Brain = biological structure
Morris Water Maze Experiment
A behavioral procedure designed to test spatial memory that is tested on rats
Homeostasis (no action?)
Homeostatic set point, ex: optimal amt of blood sugar is in the system

Environmental disturbance, ex: 5 mile run

Mechanisms to restore homeostasis balance, ex: Drop in blood sugar recognized by the PNS, sends signals to CNS... CNS sends hunger signals, so you eat...

Homeostatic set point restored, so negative feedback signals mechanisms to inaction
Homeostasis (no action)
Homeostatic set point

Environmental disturbance

mechanisms to restore homeostasis balance

Homeostatic set point is restored, and NEGATIVE FEEDBACK is signals mechanisms to inaction
Homeostasis
Environmental stimuli are sensed by neurons of PNS

Neurons of PNS send sensory information to neurons of the CNS

Neurons of the CNS process the information and send the feedback about the behavioral output to the PNS

Behavior is performed
Homeostatic Set point
The body's optimal state
Behavior
The actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment

They can be conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.
4 Perspectives used to understand biological psychology
1. causal

2. developmental/learning

3. evolutionary

4. functional
Biological Psychology
Interactions between the environment (internal or external) and the brain result in behavior
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