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| an element in an "A" group in the periodic table; the s and p sublevels in the highest occupied energy level are partially filled |
representative element |
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| a force that measures the pull of gravity on a given mass |
weight |
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| a measure of the space occupied by a sample of matter |
volume |
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| the distance between adjacent crests of a wave |
wavelength |
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| valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory; because electron pairs repel, molecules adjust their shapes so that valence electron pairs are as far apart as possible |
VSEPR theory |
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| a measure of the force exerted by a gas above a liquid in a sealed container; a dynamic equilibrium exists between the vapor and the liquid |
vapor pressure |
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| the conversion of a liquid to a gas or a vapor |
vaporization |
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| describes the gaseous state of a substance that is generally a liquid or solid at room temperature |
vapor |
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| the two weakest intermolecular attractions-dispersion interactions and dipole forces |
van der Waals forces |
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| an electron in the highest occupied energy level of an atom |
valence electron |
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| a place where no particles of matter exist |
vacuum |
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| a pair of valence electrons that is not shared between atoms |
unshared pair |
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| the smallest group of particles within a crystal that retains the geometric shape of the crystal |
unit cell |
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| the point on a phase diagram that represents the only set of conditions at which all three phases exist in equilibrium with one another |
triple point |
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| a covalent bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms |
triple covalent bond |
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| one of the Group B elements in which the highest occupied s sublevel and a nearby d sublevel generally contain electrons |
transition metal |
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| a well-tested explanation for a broad set of observations |
theory |
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| the amount of product that could form during a reaction calculated from a balanced chemical equation; it represents the maximum amount of product that could be formed from a given amount of reactant |
theoretical yield |
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| a bond angle of 109.5 degrees that results when a central atom forms four bonds directed toward the center of a regular tetrahedron |
tetrahedral angle |
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| a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in matter |
temperature |
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| the means by which a society provides its members with those things needed and desired |
technology |
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| matter that has a uniform and definite composition; also called a pure substance |
substance |
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| the process in which a solid changes to a gas or vapor without passing through the liquid state |
sublimation |
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| a chemical formula that shows the arrangement of atoms in a molecule or a polyatomic ion; each dash between a pair of atoms indicates a pair of shared electrons |
structural formula |
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| that portion of chemistry dealing with numerial relationships in chemical reactions |
stoichiometry |
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| the conditions under which the volume of gas is usually measured |
standard temperature and pressure (STP) |
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| a unit of pressure; it is the pressure required to support 760 mm of mercury in a mercury barometer |
standard atmosphere (atm) |
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| wavelengths of visible light that are separated when a beam of light passes through a prism; range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation |
spectrum |
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| an ion that is not directly involved in a chemical reaction; an ion that does not change oxidation number or composition during a reaction |
spectator ion |
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| a homogeneous mixture |
solution |
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| a form of matter that has a definite shape and volume |
solid |
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| a chemical equation that does not indicate the relative amounts of reactants and products |
skeleton equation |
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| a chemical change in which one element replaces a second element in a compound; also called a displacement reaction |
single-replacement reaction |
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| a bond formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons |
single covalent bond |
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| all the digits that can be known precisely in a measurement, plus a last estimated digit |
significant figures |
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| a bond formed when two atomic orbitals combine to form a molecular orbital that is symmetrical around the axis connecting the two atomic nuclei |
sigma bond |
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| an expression of numbers in the form of m x ^n |
scientific notation |
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| a logical, systematic approach to the solution of a scientific problem |
scientific method |
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| a concise statement that summarizes the results of many observations and experiments |
scientific law |
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| the variable that is observed during an experiment; also called a dependent variable |
responding variable |
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| one of the two or more equally valid electron dot structures of a molecule or polyatomic ion |
resonance structure |
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| the smallest unit into which a substance can be broken down without a change in composition |
representative particle |
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| a substance present at the start of a reaction |
reactant |
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| the modern description, primarily mathematical, of the behavior of electrons in atoms |
quantum mechanical model |
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| the amount of energy needed to move an electron from one energy level to another |
quantum |
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| the pursuit of chemical knowledge for its own sake |
pure chemistry |
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| a positively charge subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom |
proton |
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| a substance produced in a chemical reaction |
product |
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| describes the closeness, or reproducibility, of a set of measurements taken under the same conditions |
precision |
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| a solid that forms and settles out of liquid mixture |
precipitate |
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| a tightly bound group of atoms that behaves as a unit and has a positive or negative charge |
polyatomic ion |
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| a material found in air, water, or soil that is harmful to humans and other organisms |
pollutant |
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| a molecule in which one side of the molecule is slightly negative and the opposite side is slightly positive |
polar molecule |
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| a covalent bond between atoms in which the electrons are shared unequally |
polar covalent bond (polar bond) |
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| a covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are most likely to be found in sausage-shaped regions above and below the bond axis of the bonded atoms |
pi bond |
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| a quality or condition of a substance that can be observed or measure without changing the substance |
physical property |
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| the area of chemistry that deals with the mechanism, the rate, and the energy transfer that occurs when matter undergoes a change |
physical chemistry |
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| a change during which some properties of a material change, but the composition of the mater does not change |
physical change |
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| a quantum of light; a discrete bundle of electromagnetic energy that interacts with matter similarly to particles |
photon |
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| a graph showing the conditions at which a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or vapor |
phase diagram |
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| any part of a sample with uniform composition and properties |
phase |
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| an arrangement of elements in which the elements are separated into groups based of a set of repeating properties |
periodic table |
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| when the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their physical and chemical properties |
periodic law |
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| a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table |
period |
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| the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield for a chemical reaction expressed as a percentage |
percent yield |
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| the percent that a measure value differs from the accepted value |
percent error |
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| the percent by mass of each element in a compound |
percent composition |
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| an atomic orbital may describe at most two electrons, each with opposite spin direction |
Pauli exclusion principle |
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| the SI unit of pressure |
pascal (Pa) |
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| the contribution each gas in a mixture of gases makes to the total pressure |
partial pressure |
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| the study of compounds containing carbon |
organic chemistry |
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| atoms react by gaining or losing electrons so as to acquire the stable electron structure of a noble gas |
octet rule |
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| information obtained through the senses |
observation |
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| the tiny, dense central portion of an atom, composed of protons and neutrons |
nucleus |
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| the boiling point of liquid at a pressure of 101.3 kPa or 1 atm |
normal boiling point |
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| a covalent bond in which the electrons are shared equally by the two atoms |
nonpolar covalent bond |
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| an element that tends to be a poor conductor of heat and electric current |
nonmetal |
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| an element in Group 8A of the periodic table; the s and p sublevels of the highest occupied energy level are filled |
noble gas |
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| a subatomic particle with no charge and a mass of 1 amu |
neutron |
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| a solid in which all of the atoms are covalently bonded to each other |
network solid |
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| an equation for a reaction in solution showing only those particles that are directly involved in the chemical change |
net ionic equation |
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| a single atom with a positive or negative charge resulting from the loss or gain of one or more valence electrons |
monatomic ion |
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| a conversion factor derived from the coefficients, of a balanced chemical equation interpreted in terms of moles |
mole ratio |
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| a neutral group of atoms joined together by covalent bonds |
molecule |
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| an orbital that applies to the entire molecule |
molecular orbit |
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| a chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the kinds and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of a compound |
molecular formula |
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| a compound that is composed of molecules |
molecular compound |
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| the amount of a substance that contains 6.02 * 10^23 representative particles of the substance |
mole (mol) |
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| the volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas at STP |
molar volume |
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| a term used to refer to the mass of a mole of any substance |
molar mass |
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| a physical blend of two or more substances that are not chemically combined |
mixture |
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| describes the world of objects that can be seen only under magnification |
microscopic |
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| the base unit of length in SI |
meter (m) |
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| one of a class of elements that are good conductors of heat and electric current |
metal |
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| an element that tends to have properties that are similar to those of metals and nonmetals |
metalloid |
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| the force of attraction that holds metal together; it consists of the attraction of free-floating valence electrons for positively charged metal ions |
metallic bond |
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| the temperature at which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid |
melting point (mp) |
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| a quantitative description that includes both a number and a unit |
measurement |
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| anything that has mass and occupies space |
matter |
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| the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom |
mass number |
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| a measure of the amount of matter that an object contains |
mass |
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| the variable that is changed during an experiment; also called the independent variable |
manipulated variable |
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| describes the world of objects that are large enough to see with the unaided eye |
macroscopic |
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| the volume of a cube measure 10 cm on each edge |
liter (L) |
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| a form of matter that flows, has a fixed volume, and an indefinite shape |
liquid |
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| any reactant that is used up first in a chemical reaction |
limiting reagent |
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| whenever two elements form more than one compound, the different masses of one element that combine with the same mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers |
law of multiple proportions |
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| in samples of any chemical compound, the masses of the elements are always in the same proportion |
law of definite proportions |
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| in any physical change or chemical reaction, mass is neither created nor destroyed |
law of conservation of mass |
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| a theory explaining the states of matter, based on the concept that all matter consists of tiny particles that are in constant motion |
kinetic theory |
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| the energy an object has because of its motion |
kinetic energy |
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| the mass of 1 L of water at four degrees Celsius |
kilogram (kg) |
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| the temperature scale in which the freezing point of water is 273 and the boiling point is 373 |
Kelvin scale |
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| the Si unit of energy |
joule (J) |
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| atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different atomic masses due to a different number of neutrons |
isotopes |
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| the energy required to remove and electron from an atom in its gaseous state |
ionization energy |
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| a compound composed of positive and negative ions |
ionic compound |
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| a compound composed of positive and negative ions |
ionic compound |
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| the electrostatic attraction that binds oppositely charged ions together |
ionic bonds |
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| an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge |
ion |
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| the revised version of the metric system |
International System of Units (SI) |
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| a property that depends on the type of matter in a sample |
intensive property |
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| the study of substances that, in general, do not contain carbon |
inorganic carbon |
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| an element in the lanthanide or actinide series; the highest occupied s sublevel and nearby f sublevel of its atoms generally contain electrons |
inner transition metal |
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| the relationship PV = nRT |
ideal gas law |
0 |
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| the constant in the ideal gas law with the symbol R and the value 8.31 (l kPa)/(K mol) |
ideal gas constant |
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| a proposed explanation for an observation |
hypothesis |
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| attractive forces in which a hydrogen covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom is also weakly bonded to an unshared electron pair of another electronegative atom |
hydrogen bonds |
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| the mixing of several atomic orbitals to form the same total number of equivalent hybrid orbitals |
hybridization |
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| electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in a way that makes the number or electrons with the same spin direction as large as possible |
Hund's rule |
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| a mixture that is uniform in composition |
homogeneous mixture |
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| a mixture that is not uniform in composition |
heterogeneous mixture |
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| the unit of frequency, equal to one cycle per second |
hertz (Hz) |
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| it is impossible to know exactly both the velocity and the position of a particle at the same time |
Heisenberg uncertainty principle |
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| a nonmetal in Group 7A of the periodic table |
halogens |
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| a negative ion formed when a halogen atom gains an electron |
halide ion |
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| the lowest possible energy of an atom described by quantum mechanics |
ground state |
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| a vertical column of elements in the periodic table |
group |
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| the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass |
Grahams law of effusion |
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| a metric mass unit equal to the mass of one cubic centimeter of water at four degrees Celsius |
gram (g) |
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| transparent fusion product of inorganic materials that have cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing |
glass |
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| the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature if the volume is constant |
Gay-Lussac's law |
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| results from the force exerted by a gas per unit surface area of an object; due to collisions of gas particles with the object |
gas pressure |
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| a form of matter that takes the shape and volume of its container |
gas |
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| the number of wave cycles that pass a given point per unit of time |
frequency |
0 |
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| the lowest whole-number ratio of ions in an ionic compound |
formula unit |
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| a process that separates a solid from the liquid in a heterogeneous mixture |
filtration |
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| a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample |
extensive property |
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| a quantitative value measured during an experiment |
experimental value |
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| a repeatable procedure that is used to test a hypothesis |
experiment |
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| a reagent present in a quantity that is more than sufficient to react with a limiting reagent; any reactant that remains after the limiting reagent is used up in a chemical reaction |
excess reagent |
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| vaporization that occurs at the surface of a liquid that is not boiling |
evaporation |
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| the difference between the accepted value and the experimental value |
error |
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| the specific energies an electron in an atom or other system can have |
energy level |
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| the capacity for doing work or producing heat |
energy |
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| a formula with the lowest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound |
empirical formula |
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| the simplest form of matter that has a unique set of properties and cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means |
element |
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| the arrangement of electrons of an atom in its ground state into various orbitals around the nuclei of atoms |
electron configuration |
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| the ability of an atom to attract electrons when the atom is in a compound |
electronegativity |
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| a notation that depicts valence electrons as dots around the atomic symbol of the element |
electron dot structure |
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| a negatively charged subatomic particle |
electron |
0 |
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| energy waves that travel in a vacuum at a speed of 2.988 x 10^8 m/s; includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and gamma rays |
electromagnetic radiation |
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| the process that occurs when a gas escapes through a tiny hole in its container |
effusion |
0 |
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| a chemical change that involves an exchange of positive ions between to compounds |
double-replacement reaction |
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| a bond in which two atoms share two pairs of electrons |
double covalent bond |
0 |
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| a process used to separate dissolved solids from a liquid, which is boiled to produce a vapor that is then condensed into a liquid |
distillation |
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| attractions between molecules caused by the electron motion of one molecule affecting the electron motion on the other through electrical forces; these are the weakest interactions between molecules |
dispersion forces |
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| intermolecular forces resulting from attraction of oppositely charged regions of polar molecules |
dipole interactions |
0 |
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| a molecule that has two poles, or regions, with opposite charges |
dipole |
0 |
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| a technique of problem-solving that uses the units that are part of a measurement to help solve the problem |
dimensional analysis |
0 |
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| the tendency of molecules to move toward areas of lower concentration until the concentration is uniform throughout |
diffusion |
0 |
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| a molecule consisting of two atoms |
diatomic molecule |
0 |
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| the ratio of the mass of an object to its volume |
density |
0 |
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| a chemical change in which a single compound is broken down into two or more simpler products |
decomposition reaction |
0 |
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| at constant volume and temperature, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases |
Dalton's law of partial pressures |
0 |
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| the first theory to relate chemical changes to events at the atomic level |
Dalton's atomic theory |
0 |
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| a solid in which the atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in an orderly, repeating, three-dimensional pattern called a crystal lattice |
crystal |
0 |
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| a bond formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms |
covalent bond |
0 |
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| the number of ions of opposite charge that surround each ion in a crystal |
coordination number |
0 |
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| a covalent bond in which one atom contributes both bonding electrons |
coordinate covalent bond |
0 |
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| a ratio of equivalent measurements used to convert a quantity from one unit to another |
conversion factor |
0 |
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| a measure of how much the volume of matter decreases under pressure |
compressibility |
0 |
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| a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion |
compound |
0 |
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| an equation that shows dissolved ionic compounds as dissociated free ions |
complete ionic equation |
0 |
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| a chemical change in which an element or a compound reacts with oxygen, often producing energy in the form of heat and light |
combustion reaction |
0 |
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| the law that describes the relationship among the pressure, temperature, and volume of an enclosed gas |
combined gas law |
0 |
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| a chemical change in which two or more substances react to form a single new substance; also called a synthesis reaction |
combination reaction |
0 |
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| a small whole number that appears in front of a formula in a balanced chemical equation |
coefficient |
0 |
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| the study of the composition of matter and the changes that matter undergoes |
chemistry |
1 |
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| a one- or two-letter representation of an element |
chemical symbol |
0 |
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| a change in which one or more reactants change into one or more products |
chemical reaction |
0 |
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| the ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change |
chemical property |
0 |
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| an expression that indicates the number and type of atoms present in the smallest representative unit of a substance |
chemical formula |
0 |
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| an expression representing a chemical reaction |
chemical equation |
0 |
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| a change that produces matter with a different composition than the original matter |
chemical change |
0 |
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| the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to it Kelvin temperature if the pressure is kept constant |
Charles' law |
0 |
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| the temperature scale on which the freezing point of water is 0 and the boiling point of water is 100 |
Celsius scale |
0 |
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| any atom or group of atoms with a positive charge |
cation |
0 |
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| a substance that increases the rate of reaction by lowering the activation-energy barrier |
catalyst |
0 |
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| a stream of electrons produced at the negative electrode (cathode) of a tube containing a gas at low pressure |
cathode ray |
0 |
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| the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of pure water 1 degree Celsius |
calorie (cal) |
0 |
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| for a given mass of gas at constant temperature, the volume of the gas varies inversely with pressure |
Boyle's law |
0 |
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| a molecular orbital that can be occupied by two electrons of a covalent bond |
bonding orbital |
0 |
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| the energy required to break the bond between two covalently bonded atoms; this value is usually expressed in kJ per mole of substance |
bond dissociation energy |
0 |
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| the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is just equal to the external pressure on the liquid |
boiling point (bp) |
0 |
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| the field that applies science to the production of biological products or processes |
biotechnology |
0 |
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| the area of chemistry that focuses on processes that take place in organisms |
biochemistry |
0 |
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| a compound composed of two elements |
binary compound |
0 |
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| a compound that produces hydroxide ions in solution |
base |
0 |
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| an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure |
barometer |
0 |
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| a chemical equation in which mass is conserved; each side of the equation has the same number of atoms of each element |
balanced equation |
0 |
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| the number of representative particles contained in one mole of a substance; equal to 6.02 x 10^23 |
Avogadro's number |
0 |
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| equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of particles |
Avogadro's hypothesis |
0 |
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| the rule that electrons occupy the orbitals of lowest energy first |
aufbau principle |
0 |
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| one-half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms of the same element when the atoms are joined |
atomic radius |
0 |
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| a mathematical expression describing the probability of finding an electron at various locations; usually represented by the region of space around the nucleus where there is a high probability of finding an electron |
atomic orbital |
0 |
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| the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element |
atomic number |
0 |
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| a unit of mass equal to one-twelfth the mass of a carbon- atom |
atomic mass unit (amu) |
0 |
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| the weighted average of the masses of the isotopes of an element |
atomic mass |
0 |
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| the pattern formed when light passes through a prism or diffraction grating to separate it into the different frequencies of light it contains |
atomic emission spectrum |
0 |
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| the smallest particle of an element that retains its identity in a chemical reaction |
atom |
0 |
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| the pressure exerted by atoms and molecules in the atmosphere surrounding Earth, resulting from collisions of these particles with objects |
atmospheric pressure |
0 |
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| research that is directed toward a practical goal or application |
applied chemistry |
0 |
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| any atom of group of atoms with a negative charge |
anion |
0 |
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| the area of chemistry that focuses on the composition of matter |
analytical chemistry |
0 |
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| the height of a wave's crest |
amplitude |
0 |
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| describes a solid that lacks an ordered internal structure; denotes a random arrangement of atoms |
amorphous solid |
0 |
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| a mixture composed of two or more elements; at least one of which is a metal |
alloy |
0 |
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| one of two or more different molecular forms of an element in the same physical state |
allotrope |
1 |
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| any metal in Group 2A of the periodic table |
alkaline earth metals |
0 |
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| any metal in Group 1A of the periodic table |
alkali metals |
0 |
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| the amount of product that forms when a reaction is carried out in the laboratory |
actual yield |
0 |
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| a list of elements in order of decreasing activity |
activity series |
0 |
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| a compound that produces hydrogen ions in solution |
acid |
0 |
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| the closeness of a measurement to the true value of what is being measured |
accuracy |
0 |
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| a quantity used by general agreement of the scientific community |
accepted value |
0 |
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| the zero point on the Kelvin temperature scale, equivalent to -273.15 degrees Celsius |
absolute zero |
1 |
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